Kornatski otoci : razvoj krajolika, gospodarsko iskorištavanje i (ne)naseljenost : doktorska disertacija - Kulušić, Sven (Zagreb : S. Kulušić, 1997)
Sažetak: Kornatski su otoci najbrojnija i najgušća otočna skupina, ne samo Jadranskog mora, nego i Sredozemlja. Raspoređeni su u četiri otočna niza, dinarskog smjera prostiranja, međusobno odbvojena s tri kanala, a čine ih, ukupno, 139 nadmorskih reljefnih jedinica i to: 2 velika otoka, površine veće od 1.600 ha, 93 otoka srednje veličine, površine od 10 ha do 270 ha, 29 malih otoka, površine od 1 do 9,9 ha, 4 otočića, površine od 314 m2 do 0,9 ha, 2 grebena (do 314 m2 od gornje granice plime), 5 hridi (u pojasu osculacija plime i oseke) te još 4nesvrstane jedinice. Dijele se na Gornje i Donje Kornate, a osim krajnjeg istočnog i zapadnog dijela, prostorno su definirani izobatom od 60 metara. Cijela otočna skupina nosi naziv po najvećem otoku, Kornatu. Kornatski su otoci izrazito zajedničkih fizionomskih karakteristika.
Danas su "razbijeni" u tri dijela: - Nacionalni park - Park prirode Telašćica i - preostali dio. Svi Kornatski otoci su privatnp vlasništvo, a većinski vlasnici su stanovnici otoka Murtera. U prošlosti, pripadali su Zadru, a danas, kao dio šibenske otočne skupine pripadaju Šibeniku. Posebnost i ljepota Kornatskih otoka u današnjoj valorizaciji prostora, uz naslijeđe prošlosti, stvorile su mnoge nesporazume između regionalnih središta Zadra i Šibenika. Broj nazivlja trostreuko premašuje stvaran broj otoka, otočića i hridi. U nazivu "Hickque vocatur Corona" iz XI. stoljeća, prvi puta je u imenu spomenuta "kruna", na koju podsjeća neobičan oblik mnogih od njih; to je razlog, što su nazvani Kornatskim ili okrunjenim otocima. Neobičnost Kornatskih otoka, relativno velike površine, također je izražena izostankom stalno naseljenog stanovništva
a naglašena blizinom stalno nastanjenih, ali površinom manjih otoka. Tragovi boravka čovjeka u Kornatima, upućiju na period stalne naseljenosti, prekinut negdje u XIII, stoljeću; nakon toga, Kornati ostaju nenaseljeni do današnjih dana. Prema pisanim izvorima i sadržajima u prostoru, razlikujemo pet različitihfaza, karakterističnih u povijesti Kornata. 1. Od najstarijih vremena do prvih brojnijih i pouzdanijih pisanih izvora u XIII. stoljeću. Taj period je-u prostoru-zabilježen nalazima "malih torova" pa ga po tome tako i nazivamo. Stočarenje je nomadskog tipa, autarkičkog gospodarstva s otvorenim, neograđenim pašnjacima. To je vrijeme malih stada i stalne naseljenosti. 2. Od 13. stoljeća, kada prestaje period stalne naseljenosti, Kornati su samo povremeno naseljeni.
Iz toga vremena nailazimo na tragove poljodjelske djelatnosti te intenzivnog stočarstva i ribarstva. To je vrijeme "plantažnog" stočarenja i "velikih torova", otvorenih, neograđenih pašnjaka Kornata. 3. U 17. stoljeću, Kornati su pod demografskim pritiskom stanovništva Murtera, koje se u njemu pojavljuje. Ovo razdoblje traje do prvih kupovina Kornata pod znakom kolonatskih odnosa u 19. stoljeću. 4. Najdinamičnija faza s najvećim promjenama u prostoru Kornata, od konca XIX. stoljeća do pojave turizma, obilježena je prodajom Kornata danas većinskim vlasnicima, stanovnicima Murtera. 5. Period od pojava turizma do stvaranja nacionalnog parka i poduzimanja zahvata zaštite prirode posljednja je faza u povijesti Kornata. Svatko od ovih razdoblja imalo je svoje gospodarske posebnosti i specifičnosti, koje su se različito odrazile u pejsažu Otočja.
Iz količine, gustoće i obima ljudske djelatnosti u povijesnim tragovima, može se-približno-odrediti i broj ljudi, koji su -stalno ili povremeno- boravili na Kornatskim otocima. Prema broju utvrda i kućica iz ilirskih vremena, razasutih po kamenjaru te načinu gospodarenja do dolaska Rimljana, zaključujemo, kako je u tome razdoblju na Kornatima moglo stalno boraviti 200 do 300 osoba. Stočarstvo, kao glavna gospodarska djelatnost, već je tada dalo osnovni izgled pejsažu, koji se-uglavnom-zadržao do danas. Kornatima, u to vrijeme sa više grmolike vegetacije, pase veći broj koza u pretežito malim stadima. ILIRSKO RAZDOBLJE stalne naseljenosti vezano je uz 6 gradskih utvrda (jedna na Žutu i pet na Kornatu), a karakterizira ga koncentrirana naseljenost uz polja u kršu. Istovremeno, unutrašnjišću Žuta i Kornata
razasuti brojni ostaci "kućica" iz toga vremena, govore o disperznoj nasljednosti pastira odn. stočara. RIMLJANI u Kornate dolaze kao osvajači, da bi u tome prostoru ostali sve do bizantske dominacije Istočnim Jadranom. Zbog smanjenog broja povremenih napada i opsada u odnosu na predrimsko razdoblje, kada su imala funkciju i opravdanje u zaštiti stanovništva i blaga, gradinska utvrđena naselja gube svoj smisao. Izgradnjom vile u Proversi sukobljavaju se i gospodarski interesi. Dolazi do smanjenja broja autohtonog stanovništva radi smanjivanja egzistencijalnih površina. BIZANTSKOM SUPREMACIJOM još se smanjuje broj lokalnog, autohtonog stanovništva koncentrirane naseljenosti. Žitelji su čvršće vezani uz središnji dio otoka oko bazilike i jedine utvrde. Stočarstvo "malih Torova" je - pored ribarstva -
i dalje glavna gospodarska osnova stalno nastanjenog življa. Do prekida stalne naseljenosti dolazi negdje između 9. i 11. stoljeća, najvjerojatnije "napuštanjem gradova na otocima" koje spominje i Konstantin Porfirogenet. Prestankom bizantske vlasti, dakle završava "vrijeme malih torova" i period stalne naseljenosti Kornata. Period nenaseljenosti okvirno je vremenski vezan u rasponu između rušenja i zapuštanja bazilike i izgradnje ruralne crkvice Svete Marije unutar ruševina stare crkve u Tarcu. Uz borbe sa sve jačom hrvatskom državom, VENECIJA preuzima posjede Bizanta na istočnojadranskoj obali i počinje znatnije gospodraski iskorištavati Kornate. Pojavljuju se ribarsko naselje Piškera. Ribarstvo i stočarstvo razvijaju se na principima gospodraske isplativosti i profita. No, usprkos tome, stalna naseljenost Kornata nikada se više neće ponoviti.
Politička previranja, nesigurnost, ratovi, epidemije, "loše godine" svakako su - uz tehnološko usavršavanje plovila - najvažniji čimbenici koji utječu na takav slijed razvoja. Razvojem gospodarstva pod stijegom Mletačke republike započinje vrijeme profesionalnih pastira i "vrijeme velikih torova", "plantažnog" tipa stočarenja. Pastiri na Kornatima borave tek određeno vrijeme, i to po ugovoru, a iz financijskih razloga, njihov broj je minimalan i podrđen broju i vrsti stoke koju čuvaju (oko 4.000 do 5.000 komada koza i ovaca).Prodor Turaka u neposredno kopneno zaleđe utjeće na gibanje stanovništva, stvorivši nesrazmjer između broja žitelja i mogućnosti prehranjivanja odn. preživljavanja, i to osobito na priobalnim otocima. Tako su stvoreni uvjeti nužnostipovećavanja gospodarske osnovice prenaseljenog Murtera i izvan granica matičnogotoka
dolazi do ekspanzije Murterina na Kornate, najprije kao pastira, a potom kao kolona zadarske vlastele. Kornati su primarno pašnjak, u kojem tek koncem 18. stoljeća, kada Murterini kupuju zemljišta od zadarske vlastele, poljodjelstvo počinje biti čimbeniku oblikovanju pejsaža. Konjunktura vina uvjetuje sadnju vinove loze i naglo širenje obradivog zemljišta, a pojavom filoksere, na mjestima uništenih vinograda maslina (p)ostaje glavna poljodjelska kultura. Isključivo pravo ribolova u akvatoriju Kornata svo to vrijeme imaju stanovnici Dugog otoka. Okončanjem otkupa zemljišta, zidići različitih karakteristika i namjene počinju sve brže i sve više prsijecati Kornate, umjesto miješanigh stada koza i ovaca, ostaju samo ovce. Vlasnici zemlje u Kornatima sa Murtera i Žmana i dalje žive u svojim matičnim naseljima, gdje također posjeduju zemlju
oni u Kornate dolaze obrađivati zemlju po potrebi i samo u vrijeme sezonskih radova. Tako je stvoren poseban tip i oblik (ne)naseljenosti. Pojava turizma dovodi do zapuštanja tradicionalnih gospodarskih djelatnosti. Izuzetna ljepota, neobičnost i bogatstvo mora ponukale su stvaranje nacionalnog parka, koji je ipak - uz najbolje namjere - unesao nesklad i razbio jedinstvo prostora na manje vrijedan i više vrijedan dio. Trendovi, tendencije i rješenja prezentiranih prostornih planova i njihovih dopuna te nastojanja da Park posluje na gospodarskoj osnovi ne obećavaju ništa dobrog. Takovim pokušajima dovodi se u pitanje opravdanost razloga njegova postojanja, s nepredvidivim posljedicama za cijelo Kornatsko područje.
Summary: The Kornati Islands are the most numerous and densest group of islands, not only of the Adriatic Sea but the Mediterranean Sea. The Kornati Islands consist of a total of 149 above sea level relief units. They are dividend into an "Upper" and "Lower" Kornati composed of 2 large islands (larger than 1600 ha), 93 mid-size (from 10 to 270 ha), 39 small islands (from 1.0 to 9.9 ha), 4 islets (from 314 m2 to 0.9 ha), 2reef, 5 shelfs (in the zone of oscillation betweet high tide and low tide) and 4 unclassified. Aside from the farthest eastern and western parts, the area is spaciallydefined by the izobata of 60 m. They are arranged in four rows of islands divided by three canals. They stretchout parallel with the direction of the Dinara Mountain. The Kornati archipelago derives its name from the largest island of Kornat.
The Kornati islands have unique physionomic characteritics. Today, they are classified into three sections: the National Park, Natural Park "Telašćica" and the remaining islands. The Kornati islands belong to private owners. The residents of the Island of Murter posess the largest portion of the Kornati Islands. In the past, they were owned by Zadar, but todey are part of Šibenik's islands. The unique beauty of the Kornati islands has produced a high valorazation of land and the inheritance of the past has caused many misunderstandings between the regional centers of Zadar and Šibenik. The number of names given to the Kornati Islands is three times more numerous than their number. In the saying "Hye que vocatur Corona", dating from the elevent century, is the first time that the name "Crown" is mentioned.
This name came about because the shape of many Kornati islands resemble crowns. Therefore, they are named Kornati or crowned islands. According to the written documentation and information collected in the field, I have defined five different time frames characteristic in the history of Kornati. 1. From ancient times until the first emergence of dependable written souces in the thirteent century. This time frame is registred by the discovery of the small sheep folds and by that was given its name. Sheep and goat breeding encompassed a nomadic type of authartic economy with open (undivided) pastures and permanent settlements. 2. From the thirteenth century after the cessation of permanent settlements, the Kornati islands were inhabited only sporadically. From that time noticable traces of agrarian activities
intensive sheep and goat breeding and fishing were discovered. That was the time of plantation type of cattle breeding and big sheep folds within the open pastures of Kornati. 3. Kornati was under intense demographic pressure during the seveteenth century. During that time, there was the appearance of inhabitatnts from the island of Murter. This period lasted until the first purchase of Kornati and was characterizedby feudal relationship. 4. The and of the nineteeh ntcentury was a most dramatic phase which included the most massive changes in that area of Kornati. During this time frame is whenKornati was sold to tadays most numerous owneres from the island of Murter. This phase lasted until the emergance of turism. 5. From the emergance of turism until the creation of the Kornati National Park and the commencement of protection.
Each of the time periods had their own individual rural economy which exerted differing influences on the landscape of Kornati. According to the magnitude and density of the traces of human activities and settlements, it was possible to deduce the number of inhabitants who lived permanently or temporarly on the Kornati islands. Based upon the number of Ilirian fortifications and "small houses" scattered across the story landscape of Kornati and the ways of rural economies until the arrival of the Romans, it was possible for 200-300 persons to inhabit Kornati. Even at that time, Sheep and goat breeding as a major economic activity produces and caused the primary appearance of todays landscape of Kornati. The shrub-like vegetation on the Kornati islands provided grazing land to a large number of goats which were dividend into smaller herd.
The Ilirian period of permanent settlements were demonstrated by six fortifications (one on Žut and five on the island of Kornat). This period is charcterized by concentrated settlements near fertile fields and situated in the middle of a rugged stony landscape. At the same time, numerous remnants of "small houses" scattered in the interior of the islands of Žut and Kornat speak to us of the scattered settlements of the shephereds. The Romans arrived in Kornati as conquerors which were stationed in that part of the Adriatic. Fortified settlements lost their purpose bacause during the pre Roman times they were periodically attacked and seiged; the reason for their existence was to protect people and livestock. With the construction of the Roman Villa in Proversa came conflicts of economic interests.
The autochtonic population decreased because of reduction in the existential area. The Byzantine empire the Romans possessions. The size of the local autochtonic population became even smaller. The population was more strongy centered around the middle portion of the island; around the Basilica and the fotification of Tarac. Cattle breeding of small sheep folds along with fishing is still the most important economic base for permanent settlements. The Byzantine empire brought about an end to the permanent settlements and small sheep folds. This interuption of permanent settlements of an unknown time period came between the ninth and eleventh century, possibly "By abandoment of cities on the islands" whichwas mentioned by Konstantin Porfirogenet. The time of this "uninhabitation" occurred in conjunction with the demolition and neglect of the
Basilica and the construction of the small rural Church of Saint Mary within the ruin of the old Basilica in Tarac. While Venice was taking possessions from the Byzantine empire, the Croatian state was becoming more empowered and fighting Venice. There are various reasons causing the extinction of permanent settlements. The reasons for which are: political, turmoil, insecurity, wars, epidemics, "bad years". All of these, along with technological improvements in ships, caused permanent settlements to disappear. By capturing Dalmatia, Venice began economically exploting Kornati. Salt pans on Lavsa and Šipana made their appearance, along with numerous workingquarries and so emerged the fishing village on Piškera. Fishing and cattle breeding were implemented based upon economic profitability.
Thus began the period of professional shepherds and a time of large sheep folds and a "plantation type" of cattle breeding. This time we are calling big or large sheep folds (shelters). The shepherds wprked in Kornati according to contracts based on time. Due to economic reasons, their number was minimal and corresponded to the number of animals that were herding (approximatly 4000-5000 goasr and sheep). The penetration of the Turks into the mainland caused a movement of the population and caused a disproportion between the number of persons and the material resources for living, especially on the islands closest to the mainland. This created a pressure on the population to expand from the economy of the overpopulated island of Murter and to spread to the outside borders of the island of Murter.
The expansion of the population of Murter to Kornati firs as shepherds and later as colons to Zadar feudals and landwoners. Until the purchase of Kornati from the Zadar feudalists, they were primarily utilized as pastures. By the end of the eighteenth century, agrarian activities bagan molding the outline of the Kornati islands' unique landscape. The inhabitants of Dugi Otok had the exclusive rights to fish in the Kornati aquatorium. After the purchase of Kornati, sheep replaced the mixed herds of goats and sheep and the walls of varying characteristics and purposes had begun to expand faster. These walls traverse the Kornati islands. The production of wine caused increased planting of vineyards and expansion of fertile land. The epidemic of phylloxera caused the destruction of many vineyards.
In place of destroved vineyards, olive trees became the substituted plant of choice. The purchasers of the Kornati islands from Murter and Žman still to this day live in their main villages were they also own land. They visit Kornati to cultivate the land in the seasonal harvesting time and as necassery. This illustrates a specific type of "unpopulation" that is unique to this area. The emergance of tourism has caused a neglact of traditional economic activities. Its breathtaking beauty, and the unusual richness of its sea incited the creation of the Kornati National Park. Even with the best of intentions in the creation of the national park, there was still some disharmony because the national park severed Kornati into one part that was considered more valuable and another which was considered less valuable.
The regional plans and supplemental solutions and addendums made in order to enable the park to functions on a sound financial base have not produced a positive effect on the Kornati islands. These attempts are bringing into question the reasons behind the justification for the existence of the national park itself. This situation may lead to unpredictable consequences for all of the Kornati Islands.
Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Prirodoslovno-matematički fakultet, Zagreb, 1997
Bibliografija, bibliografske bilješke uz tekst
Summary
Keywords: Kornati